Linking capacity loss and retention of nickel hexacyanoferrate to a two-site intercalation mechanism for aqueous Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions

Abstract

Prussian blue analogues (PBAs) are promising cation intercalation materials for electrochemical desalination and energy storage applications. Here, we investigate the mechanism of capacity fade and degradation of nickel hexacyanoferrate (NiHCFe) during galvanostatic cycling in aqueous electrolytes that are rich in either Mg²⁺ or Ca²⁺. We combine experimental characterization, first principles electronic structure calculations, statistical mechanics and lattice-percolation modeling of electron transfer to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for the degradation of NiHCFe and its partial retention of capacity. Electrochemical characterization of porous NiHCFe electrodes suggests a two-site intercalation mechanism, while spectroscopy reveals the presence of Ni²⁺ and Fe(CN)₆³⁻ ions in the electrolyte post cycling in Mg²⁺_(aq). Using simple coprecipitation reactions, we show that Mg²⁺ and Ni²⁺ can coexist in the lattice framework, forming stable PBAs. Galvanostatic cycling of these PBAs shows that the presence of Mg²⁺ in the lattice framework results in the dissolution of Mg_1.5Fe^III(CN)₆ in water during oxidation. We propose that Mg²⁺ can partially substitute Ni²⁺ ions in the lattice framework during galvanostatic cycling, displacing the substituted Ni²⁺ ions into interstitial sites. Based on differential capacitance analysis we show that Mg²⁺ intercalates into interstitial sites at ∼0.45 V vs. Ag/AgCl and it displaces Ni²⁺ in the lattice framework at ∼0.05 V vs. Ag/AgCl. Substitution of Ni²⁺ leads to Fe(CN)₆³⁻ and Ni²⁺ ions being removed into the electrolyte during oxidation. Using first principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations combined with a statistical mechanics model, we verify the thermodynamic feasibility of the proposed reaction mechanism and predict the fraction of Ni²⁺ ions being substituted by Mg²⁺ during intercalation. Further, analysis of the electron density distribution and local density of states indicates that Mg²⁺ ions can act as insulating defects in the lattice framework that render certain Fe ions electrically inactive and likely contribute to capacity fade along with dissolution of Fe(CN)₆³⁻.