Molecular changes among non-volatile disinfection by-products between drinking water treatment and consumer taps

Abstract

The formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during drinking water treatment has been associated with various health concerns but the total DBP exposure is still unknown. In this study, molecular level non-target analysis by Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) was used to study non-volatile DBPs, and how their composition changes during water distribution in four drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) in Sweden using different types of raw water and disinfection processes. The largest portion of tap water DBP compositions were detected also at the DWTPs, highlighting that these DBP formulae were rather stable and contribute to human DBP exposure. Yet the number of detected DBPs decreased 14–48% between drinking water treatment and consumer taps in the three plants in which no mixing of water from other DWTPs in the distribution system occurred showing active DBP processing in the water distribution network. While considerable amounts of bromine-containing DBPs were detected upon chemical disinfection in some DWTPs, few of them were detected in the tap water samples, likely due to debromination by hydrolytic reactions. The overall fewer non-volatile DBPs detected in tap waters, along with changed distribution among chlorine and bromine DBPs, demonstrate that DBP mixtures are highly dynamic and that DBP measurements at DWTPs do not adequately reflect exposure at the point-of-use. Clearly, more knowledge about changes of DBP mixtures through the distribution system is needed to improve DBP exposure assessments.