Unveiling the promising anticancer activity of palladium(ii)–aryl complexes bearing diphosphine ligands: a structure–activity relationship analysis

Abstract

In continuation of our previous works on the cytotoxic properties of organopalladium compounds, in this contribution we describe the first systematic study of the anticancer activity of Pd(II)–aryl complexes. To this end, we have prepared and thoroughly characterized a wide range of palladium derivatives bearing different diphosphine, aryl and halide ligands, developing, when necessary, specific synthetic protocols. Most of the synthesized compounds showed remarkable cytotoxicity towards ovarian and breast cancer cell lines, with IC₅₀ values often comparable to or lower than that of cisplatin. The most promising complexes ([PdI(Ph)(dppe)] and [PdI(p-CH₃-Ph)(dppe)]), characterized by a diphosphine ligand with a low bite angle, exhibited, in addition to excellent cytotoxicity towards cancer cells, low activity on normal cells (MRC5 human lung fibroblasts). Specific immunofluorescence tests (cytochrome c and H2AX assays), performed to clarify the possible mechanism of action of this class of organopalladium derivatives, seemed to indicate DNA as the primary cellular target, whereas caspase 3/7 assays proved that the complex [PdI(Ph)(dppe)] was able to promote intrinsic apoptotic cell death. A detailed molecular docking analysis confirmed the importance of a diphosphine ligand with a reduced bite angle to ensure a strong DNA–complex interaction. Finally, one of the most promising complexes was tested towards patient-derived organoids, showing promising ex vivo cytotoxicity.