Salt-induced Fmoc-tripeptide supramolecular hydrogels: a combined experimental and computational study of the self-assembly

Abstract

Delving into the mechanism behind the molecular interactions at the atomic level of short-sequence peptides plays a key role in the development of nanomaterials with specific structure–property–function relationships from a bottom-up perspective. Due to their poor water solubility, the self-assembly of Fmoc-bearing peptides is usually induced by dissolution in an organic solvent, followed by a dilution step in water, pH changes, and/or a heating–cooling process. Herein, we report a straightforward methodology for the gelation of Fmoc-FFpY (F: phenylalanine; Y: tyrosine; and p: PO₄²⁻), a negatively charged tripeptide, in NaCl solution. The electrostatic interactions between Fmoc-FFpY and Na⁺ ions give rise to different nanofibrillar hydrogels with rheological properties and nanofiber sizes modulated by the NaCl concentration in pure aqueous media. Initiated by the electrostatic interactions between the peptide phosphate groups and the Na⁺ ions, the peptide self-assembly is stabilized thanks to hydrogen bonds between the peptide backbones and the π–π stacking of aromatic Fmoc and phenyl units. The hydrogels showed self-healing and thermo-responsive properties for potential biomedical applications. Molecular dynamics simulations from systems devoid of prior training not only confirm the aggregation of peptides at a critical salt concentration and the different interactions involved, but also corroborate the secondary structure of the hydrogels at the microsecond timescale. It is worth highlighting the remarkable achievement of reproducing the morphological behavior of the hydrogels using atomistic simulations. To our knowledge, this study is the first to report such a correspondence.