Drug molecules beyond chemical biology: fluorescence- and DFT-based investigations for fluoride ion sensing and the trace detection of chloroform

Abstract

Excessive unmonitored use of fluoride has remained a threatening issue for a long time now as its long-term use is linked to several health issues. Similarly, chloroform is a highly carcinogenic solvent that requires proper monitoring. The increasing demand for a convenient, selective and sensitive fluoride and chloroform sensor intrigued us to utilize etoricoxib (ECX) as a sensor as it is highly safe and easily available. The photophysical properties of ECX, which were previously unexplored, were now studied with increasing water fractions and a significant aggregation-induced emission enhancement (AIEE) was seen through fluorescence spectroscopy. ECX was also successfully used for the trace level detection of chloroform through a significant emission enhancement. Similarly, the ECX-based sensor successfully detected fluoride ions by showing enhancement in emission intensity with maximum emission wavelength at 373 nm. Through fluorescence titration experiments, the effects of different conditions and interfering species on the sensing efficiency of ECX were studied, and the results showed that the sensor was highly selective and sensitive towards fluoride, with a limit of detection of 20 nM. Other than fluorescence spectroscopy, the type of interaction between the sensor and analyte was also studied through UV-Vis spectroscopy, revealing a non-covalent type of interaction, which was further validated through DFT studies. Frontier molecular orbital (FMO) analysis was performed along with density of state (DOS) studies to investigate the energy levels of the orbitals. Non-covalent interaction (NCI) and natural bond orbital (NBO) analysis provided information about the types of interaction and charge transfer. ECX has the potential to be used for real-time sensing applications and could be used for sensing moisture and fluoride in real samples.