Mechanistic insights into operational lithium–sulfur batteries by in situ X-ray diffraction and absorption spectroscopy

Abstract

The lithium–sulfur battery is an extremely attractive system for electrical energy storage because of its exceptional theoretical capacity and energy density. However, the practical values typically obtained are much lower and inherently determined by the complex chemistry of reduced sulfur species. The lack of methods to probe sulfur species under realistic battery conditions has frustrated chemical understanding and control. We have employed in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and sulfur K-edge X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES) to probe the sulfur intermediates and products formed in battery electrodes during operation of prototype lithium–sulfur batteries. Correlations between the X-ray and electrochemical data show that the reduction of sulfur to lithium sulfide is mediated through dissociation and disproportionation reactions of a few dominant sulfur species. Deliberate control of these chemical equilibria is essential to approach the theoretical capacity of the lithium–sulfur system.