Three-dimensional interpenetrating mesoporous carbon confining SnO2 particles for superior sodiation/desodiation properties

Abstract

Nanosized SnO₂ particles (∼2 nm in diameter) are embedded in ordered mesoporous CMK-8 carbon with unique three-dimensional interconnected pore channels and used as a sodium-ion battery (NIB) anode. Due to the CMK-8 confinement effects, the growth of SnO₂ is suppressed during synthesis, leading to high material electroactivity. The CMK-8 not only serves as an electronic conducting pathway, but also creates interpenetrating tunnels, which guarantee electrolyte accessibility and thus Na⁺ transport throughout the electrode. Moreover, the change in the SnO₂ volume during sodiation/desodiation can be accommodated by the CMK-8 framework. With a high tap density of ∼1000 mg cm⁻³ (vs. ∼800 mg cm⁻³ for the conventional NIB anode, hard carbon), the SnO₂/CMK-8 anode shows a high reversible capacity of 800 mA h g⁻¹ and excellent rate capability, delivering 330 mA h g⁻¹ in ∼10 min. The electrode charge storage mechanism is examined using synchrotron X-ray diffraction. We confirm that CMK-8 incorporation can effectively promote the SnO₂–Sn conversion reaction and Sn–Na alloying reaction, which are known to be thermodynamically/kinetically difficult, increasing the electrode charge–discharge performance.