Mechanistic study of Na-ion diffusion and small polaron formation in Kröhnkite Na2Fe(SO4)2·2H2O based cathode materials

Abstract

Kröhnkite-type Na₂Fe(SO₄)₂·2H₂O mineral is a sustainable and promising polyanionic cathode that has been experimentally found to offer a high redox potential (3.25 V vs. Na/Na⁺) along with fast-ion diffusion and high reversibility. Owing to the structural complexity, Na⁺ diffusion was assumed to occur along a convoluted channel along the b-axis. However, theoretical work related to this material still appears missing to support that statement. In this work, DFT+U calculations have been performed with the primary aim to unveil the Na⁺ diffusion mechanism in this material. The electronic structure and charge transfer are also envisaged to reveal evidence of Fe^2+/3+ redox reaction and a vital role of structural H₂O. Based on formation energies of this material with varied Na concentration, a calculated voltage profile is determined to show two voltage plateaus at 4.81 and 3.51 V, corresponding to experimental results. Nudged elastic band calculation reveals that Na⁺ diffusion is primarily occuring in the [01] direction with a moderate ionic mobility due to the structural distortion induced during migration, suggesting the possibility of defect-assisted diffusion. Intriguingly, the formation of small hole polarons is first observed, and could play a key role in the electronic conduction of this material.