Probing reaction processes and reversibility in Earth-abundant Na3FeF6 for Na-ion batteries

Abstract

Sodium (Na)-ion batteries are the most explored ‘beyond-Li’ battery systems, yet their energy densities are still largely limited by the positive electrode material. Na₃FeF₆ is a promising Earth-abundant containing electrode and operates through a conversion-type charge–discharge reaction associated with a high theoretical capacity (336 mA h g⁻¹). In practice, however, only a third of this capacity is achieved during electrochemical cycling. In this study, we demonstrate a new rapid and environmentally-friendly assisted-microwave method for the preparation of Na₃FeF₆. A comprehensive understanding of charge–discharge processes and of the reactivity of the cycled electrode samples is achieved using a combination of electrochemical tests, synchrotron X-ray diffraction, ⁵⁷Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, magnetometry, and ²³Na/¹⁹F solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) complemented with first principles calculations of NMR properties. We find that the primary performance limitation of the Na₃FeF₆ electrode is the sluggish kinetics of the conversion reaction, while the methods employed for materials synthesis and electrode preparation do not have a significant impact on the conversion efficiency and reversibility. Our work confirms that Na₃FeF₆ undergoes conversion into NaF and Fe_(s) nanoparticles. The latter are found to be prone to oxidation prior to ex situ measurements, thus necessitating a robust analysis of the stable phases (here, NaF) formed upon conversion.