Characteristics, source apportionment and health risk assessment of perfluoroalkyl acids in typical drinking water sources of eastern China

Abstract

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) have received considerable attention due to their potential risks to ecological safety and human health. This study detailed the characteristics, source apportionment and health risk assessment of PFAAs in surface drinking water of multiple sources in Shandong Province, eastern China, including the Eastern Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project (ER-SNWDP) reservoirs, the Yellow River and the local reservoirs. The concentrations of ∑PFAAs in source water ranged from 1.0 to 107.0 ng·L⁻¹, with perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) dominating. Correlation analysis and a principal component analysis-multiple linear regression model (PCA-MLR) collectively identified potential pollutant sources and quantified the contributions. In the wet season, fluoropolymer production, fabric and textile industries, and food packaging were the most polluted (99.07%), followed by the metal-plating industry and atmospheric deposition sources (0.93%); in the dry season, fluoropolymer production, fabric and textile industries, and food packaging were still the most polluted (47.96%), followed by atmospheric deposition (33.1%) and the metal-plating industry (18.94%). Cumulative health risk values for different age groups indicated negligible health risks through drinking water exposure, all <0.2. However, the mixture of PFAAs posed the highest hazard to children aged 3–6 years. Potential risks to human health may be present at some sampling sites in the ER-SNWDP since PFOA concentrations exceeded the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) lifetime health advisory level (70 ng L⁻¹) and were calculated to obtain high risk quotient (RQ) values. The study findings had significant implications for decision-makers to monitor the main sources and reduce the pollution of PFAAs.