Calcium sources can increase mechanical properties of 3D printed bioactive hybrid bone scaffolds

Abstract

Inorganic/organic hybrid biomaterials have been developed to obtain synergy of the inorganic and organic co-networks for implant and 3D printed scaffold applications, providing combinations of bioactivity, toughness and controlled biodegradation. SiO₂–CaO_CME/PTHF/PCL-diCOOH sol–gel hybrids previously showed potential for osteogenesis due to the addition of calcium to the silicate network of the hybrid, using calcium methoxyethoxide (CME) as the calcium source. Here, we investigate other calcium sources to improve mechanical properties and printability of the hybrid inks. The aim was to produce porous scaffolds with mechanical properties similar to trabecular bone. The original Ca-free hybrid composition SiO₂/PTHF/PCL-diCOOH was highly elastic and the addition of Ca increased strength while introducing bioactivity, with hydroxyapatite formation in simulated body fluid (SBF), and no negative effects on the metabolic activity of human bone marrow stromal cells (hBMSCs). However, when the hybrid was 3D printed by Direct Ink Writing, the mechanical properties were insufficient for a load sharing bone scaffold. Alternative calcium sources were investigated here, using concentrated CME (cCME), calcium hydroxide (CH), calcium ethoxide (CE), and calcium ethoxyethoxide (CEE). CEE improved the overall printability and final structure of the hybrid scaffold obtained and apatite formed on its surface in SBF. This hybrid reached the highest stress at failure (0.55 ± 0.08 MPa) and toughness modulus (0.13 ± 0.03 MPa), with a corresponding strain of >50%. With this calcium source and the optimal 70 : 30 TEOS : CEE molar ratio, scaffold properties were optimised by increasing the strut size whilst maintaining the interconnected channel size >400 μm and increasing the inorganic : organic ratio. Using a TEOS : PCL-diCOOH ratio of 85 : 15 wt%, giving a final inorganic content of 35.7 wt%, showed the optimal mechanical properties with a stress at failure of 3.1 ± 0.54 MPa for strain of 26%, and a toughness modulus of 0.58 ± 0.06 MPa, whilst keeping an open porosity >38%. Compressive strength was within the lower range of trabecular bone (2–12 MPa), and there was no observed cytotoxic effect on hBMSCs, indicating potential for use of this hybrid for bone regeneration.