A review of core–shell metal–organic frameworks: preparation and biomedical applications

Abstract

Core–shell metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are an advanced class of hybrid materials, and their synthesis methods are crucial for determining their functionality in biomedical applications. Various synthetic strategies have been developed to create these hierarchical structures, each offering unique advantages in controlling shell thickness, core composition, crystallinity, and surface properties. Recent advancements in preparing core–shell MOF structures have focused on developing composite structures that involve MOFs integrated with other materials, such as nanoparticles, metal sulfides, and metal oxides. In this context, we explore different classes of core@MOF, MOF@shell, and MOF@MOF structures. Additionally, we discuss the practical applications of core–shell MOFs in anti-cancer and antibacterial activities, bioimaging, biosensing, and synergistic therapy, as well as their therapeutic potential.