Discovery and biological evaluation of nitrofuranyl–pyrazolopyrimidine hybrid conjugates as potent antimicrobial agents targeting Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus

Abstract

Nitrofuran and pyrazolopyrimidine-based compounds possess a broad antimicrobial spectrum including Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. In the present work, a series of conjugates of these scaffolds was synthesized and evaluated for antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Many compounds showed MIC values of ≤2 μg ml⁻¹, with compound 35 demonstrating excellent activity (MICs: 0.7 and 0.15 μg ml⁻¹ against S. aureus and MRSA, respectively) and safety up to 50 μg ml⁻¹ in HepG2 cells. Compound 35 also exhibited no hemolytic activity, biofilm eradication, and effectiveness against efflux-pump-overexpressing strains (NorA, TetK, MsrA) without resistance development. It showed synergistic effects with vancomycin (S. aureus) and rifampicin (MRSA). Mechanistic studies revealed that compound 35 exhibits good membrane-targeting abilities, as evidenced by DAPI/PI staining and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In an intracellular model, it reduced bacterial load efficiently in both S. aureus and MRSA strains. With a strong in vitro profile, compound 35 demonstrated favorable oral pharmacokinetics at 30 mg kg⁻¹ and potent in vivo anti-MRSA activity, highlighting its potential against antibiotic-resistant infections.