Eco-friendly urea-assisted m-SnO2-based hydroelectric cell for green energy production

Abstract

Mesoporous tin oxide (m-SnO₂) was synthesized from SnCl₄ in the presence of urea via template-free hydrothermal method at two different hydrothermal temperatures for water splitting. The structural characteristics of synthesised m-SnO₂ were examined using X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy, while the morphological and surface characteristics were studied through scanning electron microscopy and N₂ adsorption–desorption isotherms, as well as Brunauer–Emmett–Teller studies. Photoluminescence studies and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirmed the presence of surface-level oxygen deficiencies in m-SnO₂. The prepared m-SnO₂ was evaluated for hydroelectric cell (HEC) applications by water splitting, where it was found to deliver a maximum power of 37.90 mW in a cell pellet with dimensions of 2 × 2 × 0.1 cm³ and a peak current of 39.00 mA. The generated power was much higher than those reported in the literature using analytical grade SnO₂ powder. Impedance studies indicate that m-SnO₂, with Ag as the cathode and Zn as the anode, is a good candidate for HECs with enhanced performance.