Redox-active ions unlock substitutional doping in halide perovskites

Abstract

Electrical doping of metal halide perovskites (MPHs) is a key step towards the use of this efficient and cost-effective semiconductor class in modern electronics. In this work, we demonstrate n-type doping of methylammonium lead iodide (CH₃NH₃PbI₃) by the post-fabrication introduction of Sm²⁺. The ionic radius of the latter is similar to that of Pb²⁺ and can replace it without altering the perovskite crystal lattice. It is demonstrated that once incorporated, Sm²⁺ can act as a dopant by undergoing oxidation to Sm³⁺. This results in the release of a negative charge that n-dopes the material, resulting in an increase of conductivity of almost 3 orders of magnitude. Unlike substitution doping with heterovalent ions, furtive dopants do not require counterions to maintain charge neutrality with respect to the ions they replace and are thus more likely to be incorporated into the crystalline structure. The incorporation of the dopant throughout the material is evidenced by XPS and ToF-SIMS, while the XRD pattern shows no phase separation at low and medium doping concentrations. A shift of the Fermi level towards a conduction energy of 0.52 eV confirms the doping to be n-type with a charge carrier density, calculated using the Mott–Schottky method, estimated to be nearly 10¹⁷ cm⁻³ for the most conductive samples. Variable-temperature conductivity experiments show that the dopant is only partially ionized at room temperature due to dopant freeze-out.