Storms mobilize organophosphate esters, bisphenols, PFASs, and vehicle-derived contaminants to San Francisco Bay watersheds

Abstract

In urban to peri-urban watersheds such as those surrounding San Francisco Bay, stormwater runoff is a major pathway by which contaminants enter aquatic ecosystems. We evaluated the occurrence of 154 organic contaminants via liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry, including organophosphate esters (OPEs), bisphenols, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), and a suite of novel urban stormwater tracers (SWCECs; i.e., vehicle-derived chemicals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals/personal care products, benzothiazoles/benzotriazoles). Time-averaged composite sampling focused on storms in highly developed watersheds over four wet seasons, with complementary sampling in less-urban reference watersheds, near-shore estuarine sites, and the open Bay. Of the targeted contaminants, 68 (21 SWCECs, 29 OPEs, 3 bisphenols, 15 PFASs) were detected in ≥10 of 26 urban stormwater samples. Median concentrations exceeded 500 ng L⁻¹ for 1,3-diphenylguanidine, hexa(methoxymethyl)melamine, and caffeine, and exceeded 300 ng L⁻¹ for 2-hydroxy-benzothiazole, 5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole, pentachlorophenol, and tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate. Median individual PFAS concentrations were <10 ng L⁻¹, with highest concentrations for PFHxA (180 ng L⁻¹), PFOA (110 ng L⁻¹), and PFOS (81 ng L⁻¹). In six of eight urban stormwater samples analyzed for 6PPD-quinone (a tire rubber-derived transformation product), concentrations exceeded coho salmon acute toxicity thresholds, suggesting (sub)lethal impacts for sensitive species. Observed concentrations were generally significantly higher in highly developed watersheds relative to reference watersheds, but not statistically different in near-shore estuarine sites, suggesting substantial transient exposure potential at stormwater outfalls or creek outflows. Results emphasized the role of stormwater in contaminant transport, the importance of vehicles/roadways as contaminant sources, and the value of monitoring broad multi-analyte contaminant suites to enable comprehensive source and toxicity evaluations.