Ilaria Zanoni‡
a,
Sara Amadori‡ab,
Andrea Brigliadoria,
Anna Luisa Costaa,
Simona Ortellia,
Pierluigi Giacò
c,
Costanza Baldisserottoc,
Simonetta Pancaldic and
Magda Blosi
*a
aCNR-ISSMC, National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Science, Technology and Sustainability for Ceramics, Faenza, Italy. E-mail: magda.blosi@issmc.cnr.it
bDepartment of Chemical Science, Life and Environmental Sustainability, Parma University, Parma, Italy
cDepartment of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
First published on 12th May 2025
In this work, we combined microalgae's sorptive properties with titania-based nanoparticles' photocatalytic capabilities to develop technologies applicable to wastewater treatment while also providing valuable insights into the innovation of adsorption technologies. The coupling of Neochloris oleoabundans biomass with an inorganic nanophase enables the formation of hybrid materials integrating heavy metal adsorption with photocatalytic action. To prepare the samples, we employed a water-based colloidal method followed by a spray freeze granulation treatment. The preparation process was followed by comprehensive physicochemical characterization from the wet precursors to the final hybrid granules. Key performance indicators, including adsorption and photocatalytic activity, were assessed using two model contaminants: copper ions (for heavy metal adsorption) and Rhodamine B (for photocatalysis). The results revealed a synergistic effect of the hybrid nanomaterials, significantly enhancing the Cu2+ adsorption capacity of the biomass, which increases from 30 mg g−1 to 250 mg g−1 when coupled with the inorganic phase and is likely due to the supporting and dispersing role of the inorganic nanoparticles on the biomass. The adsorption experimental values followed the Freundlich isothermal model and pseudo-second-order kinetic model, indicating that the adsorption occurred primarily through a multimolecular layer adsorption process, consistent with chemisorption mechanisms. The photocatalytic performance of the inorganic counterpart was preserved when coupled with the microalgae, with TiO2–SiO2/biomass achieving complete Rhodamine B degradation within 1 hour.
Among the various materials studied for this purpose, algae and microalgae have gained significant attention.1–3 These microorganisms can transform wastewater, CO2, and organic residues into valuable biomass for applications like biofuels, effectively turning waste into a resource.4–6 Biosorption by microalgae is a competitive and cost-efficient alternative to conventional methods.4,5,7 It has been exploited based on a favorable combination of abundance in seawater and freshwater, reusability, and high metal sorption capacities, offering possibilities for metal recovery and biosorbent regeneration afterward. Heavy metals, even in trace amounts, are significant environmental pollutants that pose serious risks to aquatic life and human health. Long-term exposure can lead to bioaccumulation, causing poisoning and disrupting ecosystems. At present, living and dead microalgae are being explored in laboratory settings, showing the ability to remove heavy metals and dyes8,9 and making biosorption a promising approach to remediate aqueous solutions.
Research suggests that nonliving cells may be more advantageous than living ones in terms of processing and improved applicability; in fact, they do not need nutrients and are much less affected by the physicochemical properties of the super-natant solutions containing metals. The cell walls of macro/microalgae, composed mainly of polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids, carry functional groups that give the surface a negative charge and a high affinity for binding metal cations through electrostatic interactions. Metal biosorption by non-living microalgae involves several mechanisms, including electrostatic interactions, van der Waals forces, covalent bonding, redox reactions, and biomineralization processes.10 Despite the notable potential of microalgae, new approaches and designs are necessary to enhance their advantages over conventional methods and boost their application spectra.
Recently, several methods have been introduced to improve the efficiency of water treatment, and a key area has been the development of innovative hybrid materials that combine multiple techniques, including photocatalysis, adsorption, and enzyme-driven reactions.11
In this perspective, combining biosorbent microalgae with photocatalytic inorganic nanoparticles (NPs), as like as TiO2, represents an unexplored area for developing new hybrid multifunctional materials. TiO2 nanoparticles are widely used in water treatment due to their photocatalytic properties, which enable the degradation of pollutants under UV light. Their high surface area and stability make them an efficient and durable option for water purification processes.
We present a multifunctional hybrid material that combines adsorption and photocatalytic properties, enhanced by Neochloris oleoabundans and TiO2 NPs, respectively.
In our previous work, we showed advantageous synergistic effects by coupling Chlorella vulgaris biomass with TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs), and here, we report the experiments carried out on TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) combined with Neochloris oleoabundans, confirming a similar synergistic effect improving adsorption. This innovative approach could pave the way to a novel frontier in the design of hybrid nanomaterials and open new horizons for algae-based bioremediation and broader wastewater treatment applications. Most studies dealing with inorganic nanoparticles interacting with microalgae have focused on the ecotoxicological aspects of the nanophases.12–14
For the preparation of the TiO2–SiO2 sample, a TiO2 nanosuspension (0.75 wt%) was mixed with a SiO2 nanosuspension (Ludox HS-40, 2.25 wt%) before the addition of microalgae. Silica was introduced into the TiO2 nanosuspension according to the method previously developed by our research group14,17 and in a weight ratio TiO2:
SiO2 1
:
3, identified as the optimal composition maximizing the photocatalytic activity. Before adding the silica suspension (Ludox HS-40), the pH was adjusted from pH 9.7 to 4 by using a cation exchange resin (Dowex 50 WX8 20–50, LennTech).
To prepare the three-component NeoC/TiO2–SiO2 sample, the TiO2 and SiO2 suspensions were mixed first, followed by the addition of microalgae. The silica sol (2.25 wt%, pH 4) was slowly added to the TiO2 suspension (0.75 wt%) under stirring and treated by ball-milling for 24 hours to enhance the oxide interaction. Finally, the appropriate amount of NeoC suspension (0.22 g L−1) was added under gentle stirring for 1 hour to achieve a NeoC/TiO2–SiO2 weight ratio of 1.4%.
We evaluated the adsorption capacity of the SFD samples by testing the samples in presence of Cu2+ ions. We dispersed the SFD samples in a solution of CuCl2 (10 mg L−1) by keeping the system under stirring at a constant temperature of 25 °C for 30 min and at a working pH of 6. Adsorption tests were performed with 2.5 g L−1 of SFD granulated samples or 0.118 g L−1 of NeoC.14,18
To quantify the adsorption of Cu2+ we separated the SFD powder by centrifuging the suspensions at 4500 rpm for 40 min by using centrifugal filter units (polyethersulfone, Amicon filter 10 kDa). We quantified the non-absorbed Cu2+ ions by analysing the liquid phase using ICP-OES. The Cu2+ adsorption was tested against the Langmuir (eqn (1)) and Freundlich (eqn (2)) isotherm models:
![]() | (1) |
![]() | (2) |
Tests were carried out on volumes of 10 mL at increasing Cu2+ concentrations (1, 10, 100, 500 mg L−1) exposed to 1.18 mg of NeoC or 25 mg of granulated hybrid bio-sorbent.
The adsorption kinetics were followed using a pseudo-first (PFO), eqn (3), and pseudo-second-order (PSO), eqn (4):
ln(qe − qt) = ln(qe) − k1t | (3) |
![]() | (4) |
Kinetic evaluation tests were carried out on a volume of 200 mL at a concentration of 10 mg L−1 for CuCl2 and exposed to 11.79 mg NeoC (0.059 g L−1) or 500 mg of granulated hybrid bio-sorbent. Cu2+ biosorption kinetic was quantified by ICP-OES measurements on the treated solutions at increasing times (1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50 min). To quantify the adsorption, after keeping the samples in contact with Cu2+, we centrifuged 10 mL of solution at 4500 rpm for 40 min by filtering the sample with centrifugal filter units (Polyethersulfone, Amicon filter 10 kDa). This way, we separated the adsorbent powders from the solution, and we quantified the non-absorbed ions employing ICP-OES assessment. The elemental composition of the microalgae, the sodium content of the washing water, and the adsorption performances of Cu2+ concentration in water were evaluated by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry using an ICP-OES 5100 – vertical dual view apparatus (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) coupled with OneNeb nebulizer and equipped with an Autosampler. The measurements were calibrated by the use of calibration curves with a correlation coefficient limit higher than 0.999. The calibration fit was linear, including a blank in calibration. The precision of the measurements expressed as relative standard deviation (RSD%) for the analysis was always less than 5%. The limit of detection (LOD) at the operative wavelength was 0.01 mg L−1 for all analysed elements. Samples were acid digested, adding a 10% volume of nitric acid (HNO3 65%) and 10% of hydroxy peroxide (H2O2 30%). Calibration curves were obtained in the range of 0.01–100 mg L−1, applying to the standards the same digestive procedure of samples.
![]() | (5) |
Based on the Lambert–Beer law, the absorbance is proportional to RhB concentration, so ln(C0/C) is calculated by measuring initial concentration (C0) and absorbance (A0) measured at a certain irradiation time t (At). The value of k was assessed by plotting ln (C0/C) versus time (t). The conversion, calculated at t = 60 min, indicates the ratio between the amount of reagent consumed and the amount of reagent initially present in the reaction environment, and it was determined by formula (6):
![]() | (6) |
![]() | ||
Fig. 1 (a and b) Optical microscope image of Neochloris oleoabundans microalgae, (c) FESEM images of NoeC, and (d) dimensional analysis. |
We coupled TiO2 NPs with NeoC biomass through a colloidal process driven by the heterocoagulation of the two components. Zeta Potential (ZP) titrations as a function of pH (Fig. 2) or the addition of NeoC (ESI, Fig. S2†) allowed us to investigate the colloidal behavior of the suspensions, which plays a key role in the study of the NeoC/TiO2 surface interaction.
NeoC exhibited a negative ZP of −21 mV at the natural pH of 8.5 and showed a negative ZP/pH profile across the entire explored pH range, with an isoelectric point (IEP) below 1.5 (Table 1 and Fig. 2) attributed to the negatively charged functional groups present on the microalgae surface. The negative surface charge of the microalgae cells contributes to promoting their electrostatic interaction with TiO2 NPs,14 which, in contrast, presented positive ZP values at acidic pHs and an IEP at pH 6.7 (Fig. 2). The hydrodynamic diameters highlighted a value of about 480 nm for TiO2 P25, in line with the agglomeration phenomena of the primary particles with real dimensions in the 20–25 nm range.20 Despite the low mass percentage of NeoC added to TiO2 in the NeoC/TiO2 sample, we observed strongly modified colloidal properties for the NeoC/TiO2 adducts, both in terms of ZP and hydrodynamic diameters, suggesting a significant electrostatic surface interaction between NeoC and TiO2. ZP exhibited an abrupt ZP switching to −10 mV and moved to a negative surface charge across almost the entire pH range with an IEP shift from 6.7 to 3.4 (Fig. 2). The ZP/pH curve of the hybrid sample (NeoC/TiO2) did not completely overlap the biomass curve, confirming that, at low biomass concentration, only a partial covering of the inorganic phase occurred. The presence of such a low biomass percentage also affected the hydrodynamic diameter, which increased to the micrometric range, reaching a dimension of about 4.5 μm, compatible with the NeoC cells.
Sample code | pH | ZP (mV) | ΦDLS (nm) |
---|---|---|---|
TiO2 P25 | 5.8 | +25.8 ± 0.2 | 482.8 ± 8.6 |
NeoC | 8.5 | −21.4 ± 2.2 | 13![]() |
NeoC/TiO2 | 6.4 | −9.9 ± 0.4 | 4527.7 ± 947.3 |
![]() | ||
Fig. 5 FESEM images of NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD samples: (a) low magnification showing spherical microgranules; (b) high magnification revealing a nanostructured surface with a highly porous architecture. |
Samples | Specific surface area (m2 g−1) |
---|---|
NeoC/TiO2_SFD | 67 |
NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD | 385 |
We excluded any interferences with any heavy metals already adsorbed by the biomass by checking the NeoC's elemental composition [ESI, Table S1†].
We tested the prepared SFD hybrid granules by using a 10 mg per L copper solution. We selected pH 6 as the optimal working condition to prevent the precipitation of Cu(OH)2 and maximize the adsorption capacity of the microalgae.18,19 Solution pH is a crucial parameter in heavy metal adsorption phenomena, as it significantly impacts surface charge, dissociation of functional groups, and chemical reactions at the adsorbent surface.24 In this perspective, the effect of pH on the Cu2+ adsorption was evaluated at three values (4.5, 5.5, 6) and the results shown in Fig. 6 highlight pH 6 as the best adsorption condition for NeoC (approximately 30 mg Cu2+ per gram of material). This finding aligns with mechanisms reported in the literature: at more acidic pH, high concentrations of protons compete with metal ions for binding sites, whereas, as pH increases, the ionization of functional groups increases, providing more binding sites for Cu2+ ions.19,25 Furthermore, as shown in Table 1, all the materials analysed at this pH exhibit negative ZP values, suggesting a more favourable electrostatic interaction between the surface-exposed functional groups (negative charge) and the Cu2+ ions (positive charge).
![]() | ||
Fig. 6 NeoC adsorption capacity measured for Cu2+ after 30 min of exposure at different pHs (4.5, 5.5 and 6). |
Table 3 lists the adsorption data assessed for the components used to prepare the hybrid granules (NeoC, TiO2, SiO2, TiO2–SiO2) and the produced hybrid materials. As expected, the results confirmed that only NeoC has a relevant sorption capability for Cu2+ ions, adsorbing about 84 wt% of the initial Cu2+ content. The inorganic components, TiO2 and SiO2, evidenced low adsorption values of 0.45 and 0.64 mg g−1, respectively.
Samples | Cu adsorption (mgCu/gmaterials) | Cu adsorption (mgCu/gmicroalgae) | Theoretical adsorption (mgCu/gmaterials) |
---|---|---|---|
NeoC | 32.59 | 32.59 | — |
TiO2_SFD | 0.45 | — | — |
SiO2_SFD | 0.43 | — | — |
TiO2–SiO2_SFD | 0.64 | — | — |
NeoC/TiO2_SFD | 4.41 | 276.95 | 1.65 |
NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD | 4.17 | 247.34 | 1.83 |
The adsorption performance of the hybrid granules, NeoC/TiO2_SFD and NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD, exhibited values around 4 mg g−1, indicating an adsorption capacity intermediate between NeoC and the inorganic counterpart. However, the adsorption performance of the hybrid granules containing 1.4 wt% of microalgae biomass was significantly higher than the theoretical expected values based on their weight composition (Table 3).
Fig. 7 shows that the adsorption values for the hybrid granules (blue bar) are markedly higher than the expected theoretical values (red bar). This behaviour can be attributed to a synergistic effect triggered by the coupling of the biomass with the inorganic nanophases and highlighted in Fig. 7a. Typical adsorption capacity values for bivalent metals by Neochloris oleoabundans are reported in the literature to range from 30 to 100 mg g−1.19,26 When NeoC interacts with the inorganic phase (samples NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD and NeoC/TiO2_SFD) we observed a strong improvement in the biosorption capability in the range of 250–280 mg g−1, as already shown for Chlorella vulgaris.14
![]() | ||
Fig. 7 (a) Cu2+ adsorption measured for single components and hybrid granules, compared with the expected theoretical adsorption; (b) Cu2+ adsorption values normalized for gram of microalgae. |
We hypothesize that the enhanced metal adsorption assessed for the microalgae is promoted by the action of the inorganic phase, which disperses the biomass more efficiently, thereby increasing the exposure of the functional groups in the cell wall responsible for heavy metal sorption. In NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD the high contribution of SiO2 to the specific surface area, which increased up to 380 m2 g−1 (Table 2), does not appear to significantly improve the adsorption performance, probably because the chemical interactions prevail over the physical contribution associated with the surface area.
To further highlight the synergistic adsorption effect triggered by coupling NeoC with the inorganic TiO2-based nanophases, we reported in Fig. 7b the Cu2+ adsorption value normalized per gram of microalgae. The histogram clearly shows for the hybrid granules a Cu2+ adsorption per gram of NeoC strongly increased if compared to the NeoC alone.
The effect of initial metal concentrations was evaluated under batch conditions at room temperature (pH = 6, sorbent dose = 2.5 g L−1, contact time 30 minutes). The Cu2+ concentration investigated ranged from 1 to 500 mg L−1, however, we only discussed the data collected in the 1–100 range, because CuCl2 precipitation occurring at high concentrations interferes with the adsorption assessment.
Fig. 8a shows an increase in adsorption capacity as the concentration of copper ions (Cu2+) in the solution rises. This trend can be ascribed to a reduced mass transfer resistance between ions and bio-sorbents at higher metal ion concentrations.25 Consequently, the accessibility of the binding sites is enhanced, leading to a significant increase in adsorption capacity. The adsorption plateau, indicating that the binding sites become saturated, was not reached across the explored concentration range. The data from the hybrid granules confirm the advantage provided by the microalgae (Fig. 8a) as highlighted by the adsorption capacities of the hybrid materials (NeoC/TiO2_SFD and NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD) significantly enhanced compared to the inorganic components alone (TiO2 and TiO2/SiO2). The synergistic effect detected on the hybrid granules was confirmed at the different Cu2+ concentrations. In fact, normalizing the adsorption on grams of biomass the values resulted markedly increased if compared to the NeoC alone (Fig. 8b).
Fig. 8c shows the same values as percentage adsorption: at 1 and 10 mg L−1 of Cu2+, the hybrid granules achieved complete removal, whereas the inorganic samples reached only 20–40% removal, reflecting their reduced adsorption capacity. At 100 mg L−1, the percentage removal for the hybrid samples decreased to 50–60%, because at lower initial concentration, a higher number of sites are available per mole of metal ions, but as moles of metal ion increase, binding sites become occupied leading to a decrease in the removal percentage.27
Table 4 shows the results obtained from the isotherm application with the corresponding correlation R2 values. In the Langmuir isotherm model, the values of qmax, b and R2 were estimated from the linear plot between Ce/qe and Ce, while for the Freundlich model the values of n, Kf and R2 were derived from the linear plots of log(qe) against log(Ce). The Langmuir model provided high R2 values, however, for three samples, including NeoC and NeoC/TiO2_SFD, it produced negative parameters, indicating that the model does not fit these sorbent materials.28 In contrast, the Freundlich model yielded a good fit for the multicomponent samples, including both the hybrid granules and the TiO2–SiO2_SFD, suggesting multilayer sorption on heterogeneous surfaces. The Kf values for NeoC/TiO2_SFD, NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD and TiO2–SiO2_SFD were slightly lower than the assessed adsorption capacities, with values of 3.64, 2.06 and 0.20 mg g−1, respectively, but still the same order of magnitude. The 1/n parameter between 0 and 1 confirmed a favourable adsorption process.29 Although the NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD sample also yielded the same R2 value with the Langmuir model, the associated qmax did not correspond with the measured adsorption capacity, supporting the matching with the Freundlich isotherm. The Freundlich fitting was less precise for the NeoC biomass alone, associated with an R2 value of 0.7, but associated to a favourable adsorption (1/n = 0.66) and to a Kf of 16 mg g−1.
Isotherm model | Sample code | qmax (mg g−1) | b | R2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Langmuir | NeoC | −34.48 | −0.21 | 0.89 |
NeoC/TiO2_SFD | −81.97 | −0.11 | 0.99 | |
NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD | 42.55 | 0.09 | 0.92 | |
TiO2_SFD | 1.01 | 0.38 | 0.72 | |
TiO2–SiO2_SFD | −5.50 | −0.64 | 0.97 |
Isotherm model | Sample code | Kf (mg g−1) | 1/n | R2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Freundlich | NeoC | 16.40 | 0.66 | 0.70 |
NeoC/TiO2_SFD | 3.64 | 0.56 | 0.91 | |
NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD | 2.06 | 0.58 | 0.92 | |
TiO2_SFD | 0.54 | 0.45 | 0.50 | |
TiO2–SiO2_SFD | 0.20 | 0.61 | 0.99 |
![]() | ||
Fig. 9 Cu2+ adsorption kinetics modelled in linear form according to pseudo-second-order kinetics (PSO). |
The kinetic constant (k2) and the equilibrium adsorption (qe) values derived by applying the PSO model at the initial concentration of 10 mg L−1 are reported in Table 5. The qe values are consistent with the measured data, and the very high kinetic constant observed for NeoC/TiO2_SFD suggests that for this sample, the adsorption rate is particularly fast during the early stages of the process. This behaviour is typical of systems where chemisorption occurs, indicating that the adsorption sites are highly reactive and readily available.32 The introduction of SiO2 reduced both the adsorption capacity and the adsorption rate.
Kinetic model | Sample | qe (mg g−1) | k2 (g min−1 mg−1) | R2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pseudo 2nd Order | NeoC | 14.39 | 0.0065 | 0.99 |
NeoC/TiO2_SFD | 4.38 | 14.86 | 1 | |
NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD | 3.82 | 0.46 | 0.99 | |
TiO2_SFD | 0.33 | −0.62 | 0.95 | |
TiO2–SiO2_SFD | 1.03 | 1.31 | 0.99 |
As discussed earlier, both hybrid samples exhibited an adsorption capacity higher than expected based on their composition (Fig. 10). This increase is attributed to an improved dispersion of the biomass, which promotes greater exposure of the key functional groups. The plateau was reached within the first 5 minutes, with no signs of destabilization, as the adsorption capacity remained constant throughout the test duration (50 minutes). This indicates good adsorption performance for all samples over time, without any relevant desorption phenomenon occurring within 50 minutes.
![]() | ||
Fig. 11 Photocatalytic performances collected on RhB photodegradation for NeoC, TiO2–SiO2, and hybrid granules NeoC/TiO2 and NeoC/TiO2–SiO2. |
Sample | k × 10−2 (min−1) | Conversion 60 min (%) |
---|---|---|
TiO2_P25_SFD | 8.70 | 99.0 |
TiO2–SiO2_SFD | 9.27 | 100 |
NeoC | 0.48 | 18.6 |
NeoC/TiO2_SFD | 4.78 | 95.3 |
NeoC/TiO2–SiO2_SFD | 6.08 | 97.3 |
The hybrid granules exhibited higher Cu2+ adsorption than expected based on their compositional percentage. This enhancement is likely due to a synergistic effect occurring when the microalgae biomass is embedded in the inorganic phase. The increased adsorption can be attributed to better dispersion of the biomass, facilitated by the inorganic phase acting as a support. This improves the interaction between the biomass and metal ions, significantly enhancing the adsorption capacity of the microalgae from about 30 mg g−1 to 250 mg g−1. Despite the presence of SiO2, which drastically increased the overall specific surface area of the inorganic component, the NeoC/TiO2 sample exhibited the highest ion adsorption capacity. This suggests that chemical interaction mechanisms, modeled by Freundlich isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetic, dominate over the physical contribution of the high surface area.
On the other hand, from the photocatalytic perspective, the addition of SiO2 boosted the photocatalytic activity, which was slightly hindered by the presence of the microalgae. Specifically, the interaction between the biomass and TiO2 was detrimental to the photocatalytic performance, leading to a reduced photodegradation rate, although the process still achieved nearly complete conversion within 1 hour. This reduction was mitigated by incorporating silica nanoparticles, which helped restore the photocatalytic performance, providing effective sorbent and photocatalytic materials.
The use of non-living microalgae to integrate two functionalities into a synergistic system opens up promising new opportunities for microalgae in water treatment applications, significantly increasing the value of the proposed technology from a sustainability perspective.
The potential for integrating microalgae biomass with inorganic nanophases also paves the way for their application in other emerging fields, such as regenerative agriculture and nutraceutical supplements. In these contexts, the inert inorganic nanophase can preserve, encapsulate, and gradually release the microalgal nutrients.
Footnotes |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/d5na00236b |
‡ These authors share first authorship. |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2025 |